Cherokee, Native American, & Indigenous Studies

You will encounter a number of terms – American Indian, Indian, Indigenous, Native, Native American – that seem to be used synonymously or interchangeably. Sometimes they are, but sometimes there are important distinctions. For example, “American Indian” is a legal term used by the US government, but calling someone an “Indian” is typically offensive (unless you happen to be one). 

As Chip Colwell writes in his book Plundered Skulls and Stolen Spirits (2017):

“In fact, most of the Native Americans I know do not very often refer to themselves as Native Americans. Their identities are expressed through their tribal memberships, or even more specifically through their clan lineages, the villages where they live, or their religious or cultural positions within their communities. Although there are many shared historical experiences that unite Native Americans, under the single term ‘Native American’ are millions of people from hundreds of different cultural groups, who dwell in vastly different geographies, speak mutually unintelligible languages, and hold radically different beliefs. Some of these groups are even historic enemies. For good reason, many Native Americans see little relevance of the term ‘Native American’ in their lives” (273).

This guide uses the terms “Indigenous," “Native,” and “Native American” interchangeably. Please note tribal community names are preferable to these broad labels. 

Outside of an American context, you will likely encounter different terminology. (For example, “Aboriginal” is used for most Indigenous peoples of mainland Australia and its islands, and Canada uses “First Nations,” “Inuit,” and “Métis” to identify different Indigenous groups.)

In short, keep in mind that: 

• Native peoples are not a monolith.
• Every individual has their own preferences and opinions regarding their identity and how they would like to be identified.
• Terminology is dynamic and often political.
• Context is crucial.

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Conducting research in this field can be challenging for a number of reasons:

• Native American and Indigenous Studies is a complex field that includes hundreds of distinct communities. Historically and today, tribal, state, and federal governments are intertwined with politics, law, history, and identity within and among Native communities. 
• Reading historical materials can be upsetting. They are often steeped in racist, western-centric views of Native peoples, who are typically depicted as a “dying” and inferior race. 
• Pre-20th century primary sources and first-hand accounts from Native peoples are rare. Much of the historical record – ex. journal entries, government reports, ledgers – is written by settlers, missionaries, and other European Americans. 

Currently, there are 574 federally-recognized tribes and over 60 state-recognized tribes in the United States. While some Native American communities may share similarities in experiences and worldviews, each tribe has traditions and politics that are distinct from other Native communities.  

As you consider research in this field, remember that: 

• Native Americans continue to exist today. 
• Native Americans are part of dynamic, distinct, and resilient communities. 
• The effects of colonization continue to be felt in Native communities.
• Native Americans have endured a centuries of structural discrimination, dispossession, and genocide. 

As you conduct research, aspire to:

• Be humble. 
• Be aware of your cultural perspective and potential biases, even if you mean well.
• Consider Native communities from a contemporary lens (and not just historically).
• Be specific in your research. For example, focus on a particular tribe, tradition, event, art, treaty, theoretical concept, etc.
• Avoid generalizations and assumptions. 
• Be thoughtful, especially with your wording. Words matter.

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The Cherokees – also known as Kituwah people, Ani-Kituwah, Kituwahigi, Tsalagi, ᏣᎳᎩ – had long been centered in western North Carolina, northern South Carolina and parts of Tennessee and Georgia, through their land use and influence expanded across the southeast. Their ancestors were part of the Mississippian Period polities (800-1600 AD) and built sacred mounds throughout this region. After AD 1000, some Cherokee territories developed chiefdoms that led to some social hierarchies; however, by the 1700s, Cherokee communities became more egalitarian with independent leadership that varied among towns and a matrilineal structure. Common traditions, including shared language, oral history, and history, united the Cherokees as a people. 

First contact between Europeans and Cherokees may have occurred in 1540, when Hernando de Soto and his conquistadors entered the region. Throughout the 18th and early 19th centuries, the Cherokees were pressured into relinquishing their land to the British Crown and the United States. They were also involved in major imperial wars.

After the passage of the Indian Removal Act in 1830, members of the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Muscogee, and Seminole nations (the “Five Civilized Tribes”) started to be removed from their ancestral homelands and relocated to the west of the Mississippi. This forced migration became known as the Trail of Tears. The Treaty of New Echota (1835) forced the Cherokee to relinquish their lands east of the Mississippi and move to present-day Oklahoma. By the late 1830s over 16,000 Cherokee people were removed, with as many as 25% of the population dying en route (the exact figure is difficult to verify). 

Today, there are three federally recognized Cherokee tribes: Cherokee Nation (the largest of the three, based in Oklahoma), United Keetoowah Band (also based in Oklahoma) and the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians (based in North Carolina). Each of these tribes is considered a sovereign nation and has a government-to-government relationship with the United States. There are also several state-recognized Cherokee tribes in the southeast. 

The Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians (EBCI) now has over 16,000 enrolled members. Many are descendants of those who, in the early 1800s, managed to avoid removal and buy back land in what eventually became the Qualla Boundary and tribal land holdings in Graham and Cherokee counties. Some are descended from Cherokees who hid in the mountains of present-day western North Carolina. 

The Qualla Boundary is the present-day home of the EBCI. It is not a reservation, although it is sometimes colloquially referred to as one. The Cherokees purchased this land and the US placed the lands into trust in the late 19th century. 

To be an enrolled member of the EBCI, you must have a direct lineal ancestor on the 1924 Baker Roll and possess at least 1/16 degree of Eastern Cherokee blood. This amount of Native American blood, or blood quantum, is calculated based on your ancestor listed on the Baker Roll.

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